What was the advantage of pollen

Flowers have a dull texture and are dark colors of brown, purple and greenish. There are no nectar guides on the petals but often they are maculated checkered with dark spots. Reproductive organs are generally hidden.

Pollen grains are similar to those of myophilous taxa. Female owl midges Psychodidae are especially attracted to certain species of Arum Araceae due to the odor of the flower. Mosquitoes utilize the protein in pollen grains that they split open Downes Mosquitoes also pollinate Habaneria species Orchidaceae Dexter ; Thien a,b.

Members of the genus Bombylius , sub-order Brachycera, are highly developed nectar feeders Beattie While feeding on large tubular flowers or flowers with exposed nectar, Bombylius will hover or hold onto the flower with its legs and keep its wings constantly in motion buzz pollination Simes Moving rapidly from flower to flower, they resemble small bumblebees.

The hoverflies, Syrphidae sub-order Cyclorrhapha, like Bombylius , hover in the air as they feed on flowers. Often brightly colored they are known as pollen eaters and visit tubular or convex shaped flowers Baker Adult flies feed on pollen and nectar and the females require the amino acids in the pollen for the maturation of their reproductive system Wratten et al.

Hoverflies are potentially important in agricultural and horticultural crops as a biological control agent Wratten et al. Information about the phenology and ecology of these species is limited and is needed to enhance biocontrol measures Dean , Chambers et al. There are two groups of Lepidoptera, the butterflies and the moths.

Butterflies are diurnal, while most moths are nocturnal. With a few exceptions, the only food sources for adults are liquids, mainly nectars. Lepidoptera are one of the best-known and most visible insect. Pollen is often involuntarily stuck to the proboscis or on body parts of the insect legs, antennae, head, etc. Typical flowers pollinated by butterflies psychophily are generally open during the day and closed at night, have a light aroma and are vividly colored including pure red.

The flower is erect so that the butterfly can alight on the flower. The flowers have simple nectar guides with the nectaries usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs.

Moth pollinated flowers phalaenophily are open at night and generally closed during the day, have a heavy sweet odor at night, are usually white or faintly colored pale rose or pale yellow. In low light conditions, these colors are more visible than other colors.

The flowers are horizontal or pendent usually zygomorphic so that the moth may hover in front of the blossom without alighting. The petals are deeply dissected into lobes or they are fringed. Flowers generally lack nectar guides and the nectaries are deeply hidden in long tubes or spurs. Moth pollinated flowers usually produce more nectar than butterfly pollinated flowers.

Moth pollinated plants include: Gaura , Yucca, Lilium and night blooming cactii. Ornamentation of the pollen grains vary from echinate, to reticulate, to striate.

This order of insects includes the aphids, leafhoppers and bugs. All have piercing and sucking mouthparts that are used for sucking the juices of plants or animals. However, aphids occasionally pollinate flowers and even the thrips are known to pollinate several different taxa Hagerup Several families also visit flowers regularly. Research is being conducted to determine the importance of ollen in the diet of these insects.

The Hymenoptera comprise some of the most important pollinating insects. There are three major groups: wasps, ants and bees. Flowers utilized by these insects are flat with open nectaries. Some wasps Polistes are pollinators and even store nectar.

Their ability to utilize flowers approaches that of the bees. Wasps are involved in a number of unusual pollination mechanisms; Ophrys, Ficus , etc.

Wasp flowers have a dull texture and are usually in shades of browns: for example, Scrophularia Shaw Ants are notoriously fond of sugar and will use any source they can get from flowers to aphids to the sugar bowl. During brood rearing, they also need protein, which they often get from pollen. They are so small and their bodies ill adapted for pollen transport, that they enter in and out of flowers for protein or nectar without pollinating the flower.

They are the ultimate nectar thieves. Bees are better adapted for pollination than any other group of insects. They range from the simple solitary bee to the complex social bee. In the tropics, carpenter bees Xylocopa are important pollinators even though they have a tendency to steal nectar.

Among the solitary bees, the Prosopididae eat pollen directly and regurgitate it for the brood. The leaf-cutter bees, Megachilidae, collect pollen ventrally. The Andrenidae can collect pollen in their hairy feet legs.

Social bees are the most versatile, most active and best known of the pollinators. Bees are well adapted for the transportation of pollen.

Much of the pollen is removed by grooming, but many flowers place pollen upon the bee in places where it cannot be removed easily. Many questions can be answered about the habits, distribution, migration and daily life of insects by knowing their migration and dispersal patterns, source zones and movement in and around local surroundings. Behavioral studies to determine the daily activities of insects is difficult, because the majority of insects are relatively small and following and watching them is difficult, time consuming and tedious.

When insects migrate, tracking their routes and migratory patterns compound the difficulties of behavioral studies. Because some plants grow only in certain ecological zones or geographic locations, the identification of pollen from those plant species can be used to determine the geographical origin of the insect. The geographical origin is important because it indicates possible migration routes and foraging zones, especially when there is temporal and geographical variation in the distribution of the identified plant.

For example, grapefruit, oranges, etc. Citrus are geographically restricted to the southern portions of the United States, Mexico, etc. Pollen from grapefruit and oranges was found on insects captured in Oklahoma. Since citrus is not grown in Oklahoma, these insects must have foraged on citrus flowers in an area where the plants occurred, then migrated over km to Oklahoma Lingren et al.

Pollen has been used to determine geographic origins since when it was demonstrated that the geographical origin of honey could be determined from identification of the pollen within the honey Lieux Parker discovered that the source and geographic origin of the nectar being foraged could be identified from the pollen in the stomach contents of honeybees.

From the pollen found on several species of Lepidoptera, Mikkola determined that some of the insects examined migrated to Finland. The identification of this pollen indicated that these insects migrated over km.

Likewise, Lingren et al. Historically, pollen analyses of Lepidopteran species have been conducted by examining the insect's exterior body parts eyes, proboscis, legs, etc. Wiklund et al. Mikkola combed the Lepidopteran body over a glass slide and rolled the proboscis in euparal, then examined the slide with light microscopy LM. Hendrix et al. Courtney et al.

Bryant et al. Gregg et al. Loublier et al. Although Turnock et al. The idea that pollen is drawn into the digestive system at the time of feeding has not been examined. Neither the Lepidopteran stomach nor crop contents have been previously examined for pollen; although, they have in other insects.

For years, scientists have needed to answer basic questions about insect pests, beneficial insects, their migration and migration routes, dispersal patterns and local wanderings around the cropping systems in order to develop control measures against these pests.

More effective control methods can be developed when the insects' movements in and out of cropping areas, migration and dispersal patterns are known. Examining insects for a pollen marker from edaphically or geographically restricted taxa is often like looking for a "needle in a haystack. Because of the blooming patterns of many plants, insects may forage mainly on pollen from plants that are ubiquitous.

In these cases, the pollen markers can be used to determine possible food sources, but not for extracting information about migration and dispersal. For these reasons, many techniques have been developed to mark insects. Markers have included everything from the use of dyes, paints, etc. Bailey , LeCren , Begon , Blower et al. Unfortunately, most of these marking techniques are extremely time consuming and tedious. The markers must be applied to the insect, the insect released and hopefully recaptured.

In order for the marking technique to work, marked insects must be recaptured and re-examined to determine the type, color, etc.

Often dyes and paints kill the insect or interfere with its normal daily patterns rendering it useless. The ideal marker is one that can be applied by the insect in question and does not easily come off. Markers should be easily recognizable, should not come off, should not be transferred from one individual to another and should not cause harm to the individual. Marking insects with paint or with a radioactive marker can be time consuming and labor intensive and can lead to injury or death to the subject being investigated.

An ideal situation is to have the insects mark themselves in some way. This removes the human aspect and the trauma to the insect of marking. Many insects readily feed on sugar and water solutions. Pollen is a natural marker for insects that forage on nectar, pollen or other plant secretions. Local and long distance migration and migration pathways can be determined from the identification of the pollen on these insects.

If a pollen or spore type not normally found in the area is added to a sugar-water solution and put in or on something that attracts the insects being studied, then they would mark themselves as they fed on the sugar solution.

Later the same day at different distances, these insects could be captured and examined for the marker that was placed in the sugar solution. When insects feed on pollen and or nectar they become covered with pollen. From the identification of that pollen, the plants on which the insects fed can be determined. Data obtained can be used to determine the feeding sources of the insects. Once identified, the plant species can be tested for its attractiveness.

If attractive to the insects, the plant's volatiles can be extracted and tested to determine if the volatiles will attract the insects. Once determined that the volatiles attract the insects, a bait can be formulated. If a killing agent is added, then the insects can be lured away from the location to another location where they are killed.

This helps reduce the costs of spray application of insecticides and reduces the amount of insecticides put into the environment.

Honey is one of the oldest foods of mankind and there have been references to it and to the bees that gather it through out recorded history. Today, honey is regarded as an important food and carbohydrate throughout the world. Honeybees utilize certain natural raw materials that are identifiable in honey. These raw materials include pollen and nectar. Pollen is the bee's major source of proteins. Nectar is a bee's source of carbohydrates. One of the goals in the study of honey melissopalynology is to determine the sources used by honeybees to make honey.

Identification of the pollen found in honey shows which plants honeybees visit to obtain the nectar to make honey. Beekeepers need to know what flowers the bees visit so that they can locate the hives near the best flower sources.

Optimal locations ensure the health and growth of the colony and honey for the beekeeper. In addition, honey of a dominant floral type e. Except for the USA, most major honey producing regions Brazil, Canada, China, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, Japan and the former USSR require three types of certification for honey and honey products that includes the verification of the honey's floral type, quality and precise place of origin.

From the pollen in honey, the honey's floral type, quality and geographical origin can be assessed. The data collected from the pollen analyses of honey enable these nations to impose strict laws governing the importation and exportation of honey products. This certification requirement limits the exportation of United States domestic honey because the United States does not have this type of certification.

The change of climate patterns often can be determined by pollen analyses of the soil, especially the soil of bogs and lakes. Pollen falls onto the soil and into lakes and bogs throughout the year. Each year, another layer of pollen is added to the pre-existing layer. This process repeats year after year. As the vegetation changes, so does the pollen that is deposited.

Thus, the vegetational changes are recorded in the different layers. By analyzing different layers, different pollens will be found. Any climate change can be determined by comparing the pollen found in the layers to the climate in which those plants occur. For example, if a core was taken from a pond in the desert.

On analyzing the core, pollen from pines and firs were found. Although today that area is arid, the pollen record indicates that at one time the area supported the growth of pines and firs. Thus a climatic change had occurred from a cool, moist climate to one that was hot and dry.

Although von Post was the first to examine fossil pollen from archaeological soils von Post et al. By examining the fossil pollen collected in core samples from a bog, Iversen speculated how and when the local transformation from hunting and gathering to agriculture occurred. Pollen analysis of soils recovered directly on top of a Neanderthal burial revealed unusually high pollen percentages and pollen clusters from alpine flowers Lerio-Gourhan Because the pollen of these flowers is entomophilous, Lerio-Gourhan concluded that the flowers from nearby hillsides were placed in the Neanderthal's grave.

Today, archeologists routinely collect soil samples from burials for pollen analysis. O'Rourke used pollen trapped in adobe bricks from an ancient southwestern pueblo site to show that various walls were constructed from different source materials and possible erected at different times. Pollen analyses are used for determining the probable function of baskets, ceramic vessels, bedrock mortars and milling stones.

Pollen from storage foods such as maize, amaranth, cattail, etc. Pollen from coprolites desiccated or mineralized feces can provide information about the diet of prehistoric humans. Pollen can occur in coprolites through the eating of flowers or seeds or through the unintentional ingestion of pollen in medicinal teas or foods Sobolik Pollen in this context is considered directly associated with food or a medicinal item. Thus, pollen analyses of coprolites offer direct clues to food items eaten intentionally.

This type of precise information cannot be derived as accurately from other methods. Palynological and palaeoethnobotanical data from underwater archaeological sites have been generally ignored.

This lack of palynological data is possibly due to archaeologists not being trained to look for botanical remains associated with shipwrecks Weinstein For example, underwater excavations, amphoras and similar ceramic containers are often emptied underwater to facilitate removal from the sea Throckmorton Most investigations of shipwreck sites focus on technological innovations in ship design reconstruction of the vessel and retrieval of artifacts Weinstein As a result, excavation and survey reports are often biased toward descriptions of macroscopic hull remains and cargo.

Soil, leaf litter and even dust contain pollen grains that may provide clues to the type of vegetation, habitat or geographical location from which a sample originated. Soil from shoes, fingernails or just on the clothing may yield enough pollen to reconstruct the recent movements of a person or animal.

Today, the country of New Zealand leads the world in the use of forensic palynology and the acceptance of this type of evidence in courts of law. During a vacation along the Danube River, a man disappeared near Vienna, but his body could not be found. The police had neither motive nor evidence to link the suspect with the possible crime. As the investigation proceeded, a search of the suspect's room revealed a pair of boots with mud still attached to the soles. The mud was examined and contained modern spruce, willow and alder pollen.

In addition, there was a special type of 20 million-year-old fossil hickory pollen grain present in the mud. Based on the pollen evidence, the area where the defendant must have walked when getting mud on his boots was pinpointed.

Only one location, a small area 20 kilometers north of Vienna along the Danube Valley, had soils that contained the precise mixture of pollen in the mud. When confronted with the identity of this location, the shocked defendant confessed his crime and showed the authorities where he had killed the victim and then buried the body. The discovery of the murdered victim's body and the conviction of the criminal were based primarily on the evidence recovered from a pollen sample associated with the crime.

Many people attribute a runny nose, watery itchy eyes, etc. Pollen production varies among plants species. Each plant species disperse pollen at about the same time each year.

High wind speed promotes the dispersal of anemophilous pollen. Studies have shown that more pollen is found near and far away from the parent plant than in the middle Willson Many wind-pollinated plants release their pollen only during favorable conditions such as low humidity. Traverse estimated that a ten-year-old branch system of a pine Pinus produced million pollen grains. Medical palynologists are concerned with the interaction of pollen and spores with the human respiratory tract.

Factors affecting deposition include particle size, particle density, the subject's activity level, etc. The almost ubiquitous aeroallergen, grass pollen, causes allergy symptoms worldwide. Seed plants, such as palms, have broken free from the need to rely on water for their reproductive needs. They play an integral role in all aspects of life on the planet, shaping the physical terrain, influencing the climate, and maintaining life as we know it.

For millennia, human societies have depended upon seed plants for nutrition and medicinal compounds; and more recently, for industrial by-products, such as timber and paper, dyes, and textiles. Palms provide materials including rattans, oils, and dates. Wheat is grown to feed both human and animal populations. The fruit of the cotton boll flower is harvested as a boll, with its fibers transformed into clothing or pulp for paper. The showy opium poppy is valued both as an ornamental flower and as a source of potent opiate compounds.

Seed plants dominate the landscape : Seed plants dominate the landscape and play an integral role in human societies. Unlike bryophyte and fern spores which are haploid cells dependent on moisture for rapid development of gametophytes , seeds contain a diploid embryo that will germinate into a sporophyte.

Storage tissue to sustain growth and a protective coat give seeds their superior evolutionary advantage. Several layers of hardened tissue prevent desiccation, freeing reproduction from the need for a constant supply of water.

Furthermore, seeds remain in a state of dormancy induced by desiccation and the hormone abscisic acid until conditions for growth become favorable. Whether blown by the wind, floating on water, or carried away by animals, seeds are scattered in an expanding geographic range, thus avoiding competition with the parent plant.

Pollen grains are male gametophytes carried by wind, water, or a pollinator. The whole structure is protected from desiccation and can reach the female organs without dependence on water. Male gametes reach female gametophyte and the egg cell gamete though a pollen tube: an extension of a cell within the pollen grain.

The sperm of modern gymnosperms lack flagella, but in cycads and the Gingko, the sperm still possess flagella that allow them to swim down the pollen tube to the female gamete; however, they are enclosed in a pollen grain.

Fossilized pollen grains : This fossilized pollen is from a Buckbean fen core found in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. The pollen is magnified 1, times. Seed ferns gave rise to the gymnosperms during the Devonian Period, allowing them to adapt to dry conditions. Seed ferns : This fossilized leaf is from Glossopteris , a seed fern that thrived during the Permian age — million years ago. Seed ferns produced their seeds along their branches without specialized structures.

What makes them the first true seed plants is that they developed structures called cupules to enclose and protect the ovule the female gametophyte and associated tissues which develops into a seed upon fertilization. Seed plants resembling modern tree ferns became more numerous and diverse in the coal swamps of the Carboniferous period. This appears to have been the result of a whole genome duplication event around million years ago. Gymnosperms of the taiga : This boreal forest taiga has low-lying plants and conifer trees, as these plants are better suited to the colder, dryer conditions.

Fossil records indicate the first gymnosperms progymnosperms most likely originated in the Paleozoic era, during the middle Devonian period about million years ago.

Following the wet Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods, which were dominated by giant fern trees, the Permian period was dry. This gave a reproductive edge to seed plants, which are better adapted to survive dry spells. The Ginkgoales, a group of gymnosperms with only one surviving species, the Gingko biloba, were the first gymnosperms to appear during the lower Jurassic.

Gymnosperms expanded in the Mesozoic era about million years ago , supplanting ferns in the landscape, and reaching their greatest diversity during this time. It has been suggested that during the mid-Mesozoic era, pollination of some extinct groups of gymnosperms was performed by extinct species of scorpionflies that had a specialized proboscis for feeding on pollination drops. The scorpionflies probably engaged in pollination mutualisms with gymnosperms, long before the similar and independent coevolution of nectar-feeding insects on angiosperms.

The Jurassic period was as much the age of the cycads palm-tree-like gymnosperms as the age of the dinosaurs. Some bee products, including bee pollen, may have other health benefits. However, more human-based research is needed to confirm any beneficial effects. Some of these potential benefits are:. A research article indicates that compounds in bee pollen may help regulate the immune system by improving individual immune response in the cells or stimulating the immune cells when necessary.

Bee pollen compounds, such as flavonoids, volatile oils, and steroids, may reduce the impact of allergies on the immune system. Learn how the immune system works here. Bee pollen may help with some forms of wound treatment, such as burns. Animal-based research suggests that an ointment containing bee pollen extract killed microbes on fresh burn wounds and promoted wound closure, speeding up healing and, potentially, preventing secondary issues. Learn more about honey and wound healing here.

Bee pollen may reduce the risk of heart disease. Research showed that pollen extracts reduce blood lipids and cholesterol levels and may help protect from heart disease and stroke. In models of heart disease, bee pollen reduces atherosclerosis plaques and helps keep clots from forming. An animal-based study suggests bee pollen extract may help reduce the formation of fatty acid deposits in the arteries. However, results from animal-based studies may not necessarily translate to humans, and scientists will need to carry out more research to confirm this.

Learn more about heart disease here. A review found that some bee products may help fight tumor cells in different models of cancer.

However, the study used specific types of bee products, including honey , royal jelly , and propolis. Allergies, product contamination, and interaction with medications, such as blood thinners, are all possible concerns with bee products. Anyone considering using bee pollen should talk with their doctor first. People who are allergic to pollen should contact their allergist or doctor before using any pollen products.

A person with an allergy to bees or bee stings should also avoid pollen products. Bee pollen is a natural product, and there is the possibility of contamination during collection by the insects, such as mold from decomposing plants.

This substance could potentially contaminate a batch of bee pollen. Improper storage could cause bee pollen to break down. Bee pollen and its compounds may interact with some medications. A person should seek medical advice before adding bee pollen to their diet. A person who is pregnant or breastfeeding may want to avoid bee products or talk to their doctor before using them. Bees use pollen as brood food, to feed the queen, and for the speedy development of newly emerged worker bees.

Pollen is essential to bees. Research indicates that if there is not enough pollen in the hive due to long-term harvesting by humans, the colony may not survive. However, pollen trapping in the short term, which experts define 3—4 weeks , may not have any adverse consequences. When bees enter a hive, they deposit small amounts of pollen on the outside of the hive, which people can collect or harvested by hand.

People can also use pollen traps to harvest bee pollen. Often used by commercial beekeepers, pollen traps are devices placed underneath or at the front of the entrance to the hive.

They are typically either plastic or a metal mesh. Bees returning to the hive have to walk through the mesh trap to enter the hive and, as they do so, the mesh scrapes some of the pollen off their legs into a collection tray.